թԹ,The GuardianթԹե. թժ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ»թԹԲթԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹԶթԹ(թԹԶթԹԳթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹ—:__________;The collapse of Soviet power in the southern Caucasus and central Asia in the 1990s opened up a political space for the re-emergence of the nationalist ideology known as pan-Turkism.;

NEWS.am-թԹ— թԹԲթԹ❁թԹզթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ, թԹ՜թՉ-թԹաթԹ❁թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹԲթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթԹԷ թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹթԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ« թՉ-թԹ(թԹԳթՉ-թԹ, թԹթՉ-թԹ(թԹ§թՉ-թԹԳթԹ,թԹ՜թԹ, թԹ՛թԹԴթԹ)թԹԷթԹ❁թԹ…թԹ—` թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԵթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ)թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ,The GuardianթԹե-թԹԴթՉթԹԲ:

թԹզթԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ,թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԻթԹ-թԹԴթՉթԹ»թԹԴթՉթԹԲթԹ,թԹ թԹ՛թԹ(թԹէթԹԴ թԹ՞թԹԳթԹ)թՉ-թԹ՜թԹԴթԹԷթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹզթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թՉ թԹէթԹ(թԹԳթԹէթՉ-թԹԴթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՞թԹզթԹ,թԹ❁թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թՉթԹ❁թԹԱթԹ❁թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉ թԹ§թԹ❁թԹթԹԷթԹ(թԹ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ»թԹԲթԹ, թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ։թԹ❁թԹբթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹ❁թԹԱթԹ❁թԻթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՟թԹԴթԹզթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թԹԳթԹԳթԹ)թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-:

19-թՉ-թԹ) թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ, թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹեթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թՉ 20-թՉ-թԹ) թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ, թԹզթԹ՜թԹ»թԹ§թԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ՞թԹ(թՉթԹ❁թԹԷթԹԴթՉ-թԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹ❁թԹբթԹ) թՉթԹ❁թԹԱթԹ❁թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹգթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՝թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԳթԹԵթԹ❁թԹէթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԳ թԹ«թՉ- թՉ»թԹզթԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹԴթԹԱթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԲ, թՉթՉ-թԹ,թԹԲթԹԴթՉթԹԲ, թԹթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թժթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ❁թԹբթԹ- թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹէթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ…թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԲ, թՉ՛թԹ,թԹԳթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹԲթԹԴթՉթԹէթՉթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թՉ թԹեթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹԴթՉ թԹ՞թՉ թԹԱթԹ❁թԹԳթԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹԴթՉ-թԹԴթԹգ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ§թԹԴթԹ-թԹԴթՉ- թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ-թԹ(թԹ»թԹԴթՉ թԹ՝թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթԹԷթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ)թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թՉթԹ❁թԹԱթԹ❁թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԷթԹԴթՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԲթԹ—:

թԹ՞թԹբթԹ՝թԹԲ թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ-թԹ(թԹ»թԹԴթՉ թԹ՝թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթԹԷթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ)թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թԹԳ 170 թԹԲթԹ,թԹ-թԹ,թԹԴթԹԳ թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ): թԹ՞թԹԲթԹ(թԹԳթԹ❁թԹԲթԹ(թԹ…թԹ❁թԹ.թԹ,թԹԷթԹ— թԹ.թԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ(թՉ-թԹԳ թԹ(թԹԳ` 85 թԹԲթԹ,թԹ-թԹ,թԹԴթԹԳ:

թԹդթԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹգթԹ՟թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՛թԹ— թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԶթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ« թՉ-թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԷ-թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹ(թԹ-թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹբթԹԷթՉ-թԹԴթԹ❁թԹբթԹ, թԹ(թՉ թԹէթԹ(թԹԳթԹէթՉ-թԹԴթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՞թԹզթԹ,թԹ❁թԹբթԹ, թԹ՛թԹզթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ❁թԹզթԹ—: թԹ՞թԹբթԹզթՉ»թՉ- թԹ։թԹԴթԹբթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ՟ թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ-թԹ(թԹ»թԹԴթՉ թԹԷթԹ(թԹ թԹԵթԹ(թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-` թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳ, թՉթԹ❁թԹ»թԹ❁թԹ՟թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳ, թՉթՉ-թԹԱթԹ—թԹ»թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳ, թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹԲթԹ(թԹԳթԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳ, թխթՉթԹ»թԹ§թԹ(թԹ՜թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ(թՉ թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ:

թժթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ։թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԷթԹԴթՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹ(թԹԳ թԹ՞թԹ-թԹ.թԹ❁թԹբթԹ, թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԳթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԵթԹ(թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ—, թԹԱթԹ❁թԹգթԹ՜թԹԴթՉ-թԹէթԹԴթԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ—, թՉ՛թԹԴթՉթԹԷթԹ❁թԹգթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ, թԹդթԹ❁թԹ.թԹ❁թՉ-թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ(թՉ թԹթԹ,թԹԷթԹ❁թԹԳ:

թՉթՉ-թԹ,թԹԲթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ.թԹ❁թԹ.թԹ❁թՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ§թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԷթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թԹԳ թԹԴթՉթԹ՜թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ,թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ.թԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԱթԹ»թԹ,թԹԴթՉթԹԲ, թԹ,թԹզթԹ՜ թՉ՛թԹ,թԹԳթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹթԹ,թԹԳթԹթԹ»թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ-թԹԴթՉթԹբթԹԱթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ,թԹԳթՉթԹԳթԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ- թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ»թԹ— թԹԲթԹ(թԹ՜ թԹ❁թԹբթԹ- թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՝թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթԹԷթՉ-թԹ)թԹ,` թԹԴթՉթԹբթԹԱթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթՉ-թԹ(թԹԳթԹ,թՉթԹԳ թԹ«:

թՉ-թԹ,թԹԲթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՟թԹ»թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹ,թԹ…թԹ— թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉ թԹԲթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹԴթՉթԹ-թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ(թՉ թԹԶթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹԲթԹ(թԹէ թՉթՉ-թԹ,թԹզթԹէթԹԴթԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹԲթԹ,թԹեթԹ(թՉ թԹԲթԹ,թԹգթԹէ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹթԹ(թԹ- թԹ« թՉ-թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹէթԹԴթԹԷթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹզթԹԴթՉթԹԲ:

թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ՝թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթԹԷթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ)թԹ— թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԲթԹբթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹգթԹ❁թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜ թԹ§թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ) թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ, թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ(թԹէ թԹ(թՉ թԹԴթԹԱթԹեթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹ- թԹ« թԹԶթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹգթԹ՟թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ— թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թԹ❁թԹգթՉ-թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ:

թԹ՞թԹԶթԹ❁թԹեթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թԹգթԹ՟թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹէթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ, թԹ՝թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜ թՉ§թԹզթԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹզթՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹԲթԹ(թԹԱթԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹԷթԹ(թԹթԹ,թԹԳ թժթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹեթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹթԹ(թԹ-թԹԴթՉ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ- թԹ(թՉ 1915-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ(թԹ-թԹ, թՉթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ(թԹ՜ թԹԲթԹ,թԹ-թԹ,թԹԴթԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբ թԹզթԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԷթԹ(թԹ:

1918-1920 թԹ.թԹԷթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ,թԹԳթՉթԹԳթԹ,թԹգթԹ՟թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹ«թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ(թՉ թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ-թԹէ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹէթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-: թԹթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹԳ թԹգթԹԴթՉթԹէթԹԴթԹԷ թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թԹԴթՉ թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՞թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹզթԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ,թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ❁թԹզ:

թԹզթԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹգթՉ-թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ-թԹ,թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՝թԹ(թՉ թԹ՟թԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԳթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԵթԹ(թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹ«թԹ,թԹԳ: թԹթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹԳ 4400 թՉթԹ❁թԹԶթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ, թԹ՜թԹԲ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉ թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹթԹԴթԹԱ թԹԶթԹ(թԹԶթԹԳթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹ—, թԹԴթՉ-թԹ— թԹ։թԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ❁թԹԳթԹթԹ❁թԹԵթԹ(թԹզ թԹ§թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ(թԹթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹ« թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթԹԷ, թԹ,թԹԳթՉթԹԳթԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ- թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ» թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՞թԹ❁թԹԷ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹզթԹ❁թԹ՛թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹԲ:

1980-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹեթԹԴթՉթԹԲ, թԹ(թՉ-թԹ§ թԹ՟թԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ,թԹգթԹ՟թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ— թԻթԹ-թԹԴթՉթԹ»թԹԷթԹ(թԹ, թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թԹԴթՉ թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ՟թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ թԹ՞թԹ(թԹԶթՉ թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹ(թԹթԹ,թԹԳ: թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ.թԹգթԹԳթԹ❁թԹԲթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ— թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՞թԹբթԹ❁թԹ- թԹԷթԹ(թՉ- թԹ§թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՞թՉ-թԹ❁թԹթԹ❁թԹԷ:

1991-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹԲթԹ,թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԴթԹԱթԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ,թԹԴթՉ-թԹ(թԹԳ թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹթՉ-թԹ(թԹ թԹԶթԹ(թԹԶթԹԳթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹ, թԹ,թԹԳթՉթԹԳթԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ- թԹ՜թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ։թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ,թԹաթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ—: թԹ՞թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ-թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ, թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ՛թԹԶթԹդթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ(թԹթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ՟թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ:

թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ(թՉ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹԲթԹ,թԹեթԹ(թՉ թԹզթԹ՜թԹզթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹԵթԹ❁թԹէթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ, թԹ՛թԹ,թԹԲթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԶթԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹԴթՉ-թԹ…թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ-թԹէթԹԷթԹ(թԹթԹ,թԹԳ 1994-թԹ,թԹԳ, թԹ(թՉ-թԹ§ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ։թՉ-թԹ(թԹ.թԹ( թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ§թԹԴթԹԱթԹեթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԲթԹ§ թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՛թԹզթԹ՜թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թԹ՜ թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹթՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹԶթԹ(թԹԶթԹԳթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ-թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ,թԹ թԹ)թԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹզ թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ—: թժթԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹԴթՉ-թԹ…թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՝թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜ թԹ»թԹԴթԹ՛թԹԷթԹ(թԹ թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ(թԹ-թԹ, թՉթԹ❁թԹԳ 30 թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ❁թՉ- թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ):

1993-թԹ,թԹԳ, թԹ(թՉ-թԹ§ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹԴթՉթԹ՝թԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ❁թԹԶթԹ❁թԹե թԹ«թԹ,թԹԳ թԹգթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ՝թԹԷթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹթԹ,թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹԴթՉթԹԱթԹԱթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԲթԹ§, թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԳթԹեթԹ(թԹ թԹ)թԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹզ թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹ(թԹ- թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԴթՉթԹ՝թԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹ թԹ(թՉ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԷթԹԴթՉ- թԹ.թԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉ թԹ»թԹ,թԹԳթԹԷթԹԴթՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ- թԹէթԹ(թԹԱթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹբթԹԷթԹ(թԹթԹ,թԹԳ թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹբթԹ, թԹ(թՉ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹզթԹ❁թԹ՛թԹԲթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ,թԹԳ: թժթԹԴթՉթԹզթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՟թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ։թԹԴթՉթԹգթԹ❁թԹթՉ-թԹ(թԹ թԹ»թԹ(թՉ-թԹ… թԹԲթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ- թԹԴթՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹ« թԹԶթԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԲթԹ,թԹեթԹ❁թԹԲթԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ,թԹ:

1994-թԹ,թԹ թԹ, թԹԷթԹ(թՉ- թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹԵթԹ❁թԹէթԹ(թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ»թԹԲթԹ, թԹԷթԹ,թԹաթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թԹԳ: թԹբթՉ-թԹ՜թԹԴթՉ թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թՉ-թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ— թԹդթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹԳ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹգթԹէթԹԴթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ)թԹ,թԹԷթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ։թԹ,թԹէթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-:

1993-թԹ,թԹ թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹգթՉ-թԹեթԹ❁թԻթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹԲթԹէթԹթՉ-թԹ(թԹ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ)թԹ(թԹԲ` թԹ)թԹ❁թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թԹթԹԳթԹ(թԹ-թԹԴթԹԷ թԹթԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ(թՉ թՉ»թԹ)թԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԱթԹԴթՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ—: թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ(թՉթԹզ թԹդթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ(թԹԳ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹգթԹէթԹԴթԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ)թԹ,թԹԷթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ։թԹ,թԹէթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-:

2009թԹ.. թԹԲթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹզթԹ,թԹԳ թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹբթԹ, թԹԷթԹ❁թՉ-թԹդթԹ❁թԹԵթԹ(թԹէ թԹգթՉ-թԹ)թԹԴթԹԱթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՟թԹԴթՉ-թԹ՛թՉ-թԹ)թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թԹ, թԹԴթՉ- թԹդթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ,թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԴթՉ թԹ՞թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— թԹ,թԹԲթԹ(թԹ՜ թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ։, թԹ(թՉ-թԹ՜թԹԴթՉ թԹԵթԹ(թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ թԹ(թԹԳթԹե թԹ(թՉ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբ-թԹ.թԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ(թՉ-թԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹԳթԹԴթՉ-թԹԲթԹ❁թԹ-թԹ❁թԹթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹդթԹ, թԹ-թԹ,թԹԳթԹ, թՉթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ)թԹ(թԹԶ թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թՉ»թԹ՜թԹԴթՉթԹԵթԹ❁թԹթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ…թՉթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-:

թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹԵթԹ❁թԹգթԹէթԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՟թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թՉ- թԹթԹ(թԹբթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԳ թՉ§թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ— 2010թԹ.. թԹ՛թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԷթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹբթԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թԹ, թԹԴթՉ- թԹԵթԹ❁թԹգթԹէթԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ։թԹ,թԹ…թԹ— թԹԷթԹ(թՉ-թԹեթԹ,թԹԳ թԹէթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ»թԹ։թԹ❁թԹ-թԹ,թԹԴթՉ-թԹ(թԹԳ թԹ❁թԹԲթՉ-թԹ❁թԹթԹԷթԹ(թԹ- թԹ«:

թԹ,թՉթԹ(թԹԳթՉ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹ՛թԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ(թԹԳթՉ թԹԴթՉթԹ՝թԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԷթԹ❁թԹզթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹգթԹԶթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ— թԹ❁թԹ)թՉ-թԹ§թԹ(թԹեթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ»թԹ,թԹԳթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹԴթՉթԹ՝թԹ(թՉ-թԹ, թԹ՛թԹ(թԹէթԹե,- թԹԳթԹգթԹ(թԹ թՉ§թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԳթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ—:

թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹբթԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ— թԹէթԹԴթԹԷթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹզթԹ, թԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթՉ-թՉթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԳ թԹ՝թԹԴթԹԱթԹԴթԹԷթԹԴթՉթՉ-թԹ)թԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹԳ թԹ՛թԹ❁թՉ-թԹ(թՉթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹ թԹ§թԹ❁թԹ՝թԹ❁թԹԳթԹԴթԹԱ թԹ։թԹԴթԹէթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹԲթԹ, թՉթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹզթԹ❁թԹԶթԹ(թԹթԹԷթԹ❁թԹ… թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹ❁թԹԲթԹ❁թՉ-թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹԳթԹ(թՉ-թԹ,թԹ թԹԲթԹ(թԹ՜թԹԳ թԹ«: թԹԶթԹ(թԹԶթԹԳթԹ❁թԹբթԹ,թԹԳ թՉթԹ❁թՉ-թԹ❁թԹ§թԹ❁թԹԱթԹ— թԹ)թԹ( թՉ թԹ❁թԹ՜թԹէթԹԴ թԹ❁թԹԳթԹ՜թԹ❁թԹ՟ թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹԳթՉ-թԹ❁թԹԵթԹ(թԹէթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ թԹ«, թԹԴթՉ-թԹԳ թԹԴթՉթԹԳթԹ, 140 թԹ՛թԹ❁թԹ»թԹ❁թՉ- թԹ§թԹԳթԹ❁թԹ՜թԹդթԹԴթՉթԹ.թԹբթԹԴթՉթԹԳ թԹ(թՉ թԹԵթԹ❁թԹգթԹէթԹԵթԹ❁թԹԳթԹԷթԹԴթՉթԹԲ թԹ« թՉ-թԹ❁թԹբթԹ❁թԹզթԹէթԹ❁թԹԳթԹ, թԹ՜թԹԴթԹԱթԹԲթԹ,թԹ:

By Henry Srebrnik

Commentary

The collapse of Soviet power in the southern Caucasus and central Asia in the 1990s opened up a political space for the re-emergence of the nationalist ideology known as pan-Turkism.

This political movement, which originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, had as its goal the political union of all Turkic-speaking peoples in the Ottoman lands, the Crimea and other parts of tsarist Russia, eastern Turkestan in western China, and parts of Iran and Afghanistan.

Some 170 million people speak a Turkic language, with the largest, Turkish, used by about 85 million people.

The Turkic world encompasses a huge portion of southeastern Europe and central Asia. Today there are six independent Turkic countries: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as Turkey itself.

There are also several Turkic national entities in the Russian Federation, including the Altai Republic, Bashkortostan, Chuvashia, Tatarstan, and Tuva.

The Crimean Tatars inhabit the Ukrainian peninsula that borders the Black Sea, and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of western China is home to the Uighurs, another Turkic people.

A main թ§Չ-ժfault lineթ§Չ-Թ between the Turkic Muslim and pro-Russian Christian peoples has always run through the southern Caucasus.

The nation of Armenia has been at odds with its Muslim Turkic neighbours for centuries and hence welcomed Russian rule in the region. It has suffered whenever the Russians and Turks were at war.

During the First World War, the Armenians within the Turkish Ottoman Empire were accused of aiding Russia, and in 1915 upwards of one million of them were massacred.

Between 1918 and 1920, Armenia and neighbouring Azerbaijan were sovereign countries, and fought an indecisive war over territory. But both soon became part of the new Communist-ruled Soviet Union.

During the Soviet period, Armenia and Azerbaijan were full Soviet republics. But the 4,400 square kilometre area known as Nagorno-Karabakh, though inhabited mainly by Armenians, became an autonomous oblast (region) within the borders of Azerbaijan, cut off from Armenia proper.

By the late 1980s, as Soviet rule in the Caucasus disintegrated, and the two countries once again became independent states, old enmities resurfaced.

There were massacres of Armenians in the Azeri capital, Baku, and killings of Azeris in Yerevan in Armenia.

In 1991, Azerbaijan unilaterally abolished the autonomous status of Nagorno-Karabakh. In response, the Armenians in the enclave declared their independence.

Full-scale fighting between Armenia and Azerbaijan ensued, and by the time a cease-fire ended major hostilities in 1994, the Armenians were in control of almost all of Nagorno-Karabakh as well as a considerable amount of Azerbaijani territory outside the enclave.

More than 30,000 people were killed in the fighting from 1992 to 1994. As many as 230,000 Armenians from Azerbaijan and 800,000 Azeris from Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh were displaced as a result of the conflict.

The war also drew in the two major powers in the region, Russia and Turkey. In 1993, as Armeniaթ§Չ-Չ§s forces were routing the Azeris, Turkey demanded that the Armenians pull out of Azerbaijani territory, and thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia. Russian in response warned Turkey against any military involvement.

Though there has been little fighting since 1994, Armenia and Azerbaijan are still technically at war and the two countries have no formal diplomatic relations.

Turkey imposed a blockade on Armenia in 1993, resulting in a total shutdown of land and air communications between the two countries; they also have no formal diplomatic relations.

In May 2009 Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip ErdoթժԴan told the Azeri parliament that Turkey and Azerbaijan were թ§Չ-ժone nation with two states.թ§Չ-Թ He added that there would be no normalization of Armenian-Turkish relations unless թ§Չ-ժthe occupation of Azerbaijani territory ends.թ§Չ-Թ

Armeniaթ§Չ-Չ§s Defence Minister Seyran Ohanian in turn stated in January 2010 that defence fortifications have been beefed up significantly in recent years. թ§Չ-ժWe are maintaining the balance of forces vis-թԹ -vis the Azerbaijani armed forces.թ§Չ-Թ

The Nagorno-Karabakh dispute is one of several թ§Չ-ժfrozenթ§Չ-Թ conflicts in the cultural zone separating the Turkic peoples of the Caucasus from their neighbours, and Nagorno-Karabakh remains a de facto independent republic of some 140,000 people, protected by Armenia.

Henry Srebrnik is a professor of political studies at the University of Prince Edward Island.

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